Despite the widespread negative consequences of prejudice on minority groups, finding effective countermeasures remains an elusive quest (Betrand and Duflo 2017). The challenge often stems from the intrinsic nature of behaviours rooted in deep-seated cultural norms, which are difficult to observe and even harder to change. A typical example is narratives portrayed in media outlets, such as television, cinema, and radio. Throughout history, media narratives have often mirrored and reinforced existing cultural beliefs and negative stereotypes about minority groups. These portrayals have contributed to the denial of civil rights and the perpetuation of exclusion and discrimination of minority communities, such as African Americans in the US (Ang 2023, Esposito et al. 2023) and Jews in 1930s Germany (Adena et al. 2015).
Can changing media narratives then contribute to examining and potentially reducing prejudice? Despite the pervasive influence of media (Strömberg 2015, DellaVigna and Gentzkow 2010, DellaVigna and La Ferrara 2015, Campante et al. 2022), there is a surprising lack of evidence addressing this question. Progressive narratives about minority groups – those that challenge predominant beliefs and promote new perspectives – are less common in popular media. This scarcity largely owes to the inherent difficulty of accepting these narratives. Psychologists have long recognised that narratives challenging the status quo are more difficult to accept than those reinforcing existing beliefs. For instance, in his seminal work on The Nature of Prejudice (1954), Gordon Allport famously conjectured that ‘’it is easier [. . .] to smash an atom than a prejudice”.
Post-WWII progressive narratives and Superman’s Operation Intolerance
In a recent paper (Armand et al. 2023), we examine the impact of exposure to narratives that promote inclusion and challenge existing prejudices, focusing on the surge of progressive narratives around race relations following WWII. The US in the 1940s remained deeply divided along racial lines. In the South, the ‘Jim Crow laws’ institutionalised de jure racial segregation in public facilities and imposed harsh voting restrictions on African Americans. In the North, prejudicial treatment was not legally inscribed but was still a fact of everyday life. During the early 20th century, white Americans generally either tolerated or actively supported racial exclusion, with cultural products often reflecting and reinforcing such racism. The experience of WWII spurred a critical re-examination of racial divides and their implications for the nation's future, while narratives depicting a society built upon equality and justice began to spread through popular media. These years of cultural change culminated in one of the most politically active generations in US history and are considered pivotal for the Civil Rights victories of the 1960s (Hall 2005).
We document how exposure to progressive narratives at the onset of this period impacted racial tolerance and support for civil rights in post-WWII America. We exploit a groundbreaking experiment in broadcasting history that portrayed these narratives through fictional stories for children and broadcast them on mass media, creating exogenous variation in exposure to these narratives. In the summer of 1946, the popular children’s radio programme, The Adventures of Superman, launched Operation Intolerance, a deliberate and sudden shift in the show’s narrative to promote inclusive values. New story arcs featured Superman fighting white supremacists and advocating for a racially integrated community, as well as stepping up against discrimination in the labour market. The scripts were explicitly designed to influence the social values of millions of children and adolescents, emphasising the importance of treating others without prejudice as a core American virtue and depicting minorities as sympathetic, moral, and hardworking. Such a message of tolerance, particularly regarding racial equality, targeted at millions of children was unprecedented at that time. Content analysis of the story scripts, summarised in Figure 1, reveals that the proportion of words related to intolerance suddenly increased in April 1946, when Operation Intolerance was launched.
Figure 1 The change in narrative in The Adventures of Superman
Note: For each episode transcript in The Adventures of Superman the figure illustrates the share of keywords (per 1,000 words) related to tolerance or intolerance.
From progressive narratives to the rise of Civil Rights
To assess the impact of this narrative shift, we collected comprehensive data on US radio stations active in 1946, focusing specifically on the Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS), which was the sole broadcaster of The Adventures of Superman. Using Amplitude Modulation (AM) radio propagation models, we mapped the radio signal coverage to estimate the exposure of different counties to the programme. This approach revealed significant spatial variation in geographic coverage (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Signal strength of The Adventures of Superman in 1946
Note. Authors’ calculations. See Armand et al. (2023).
We examined how childhood exposure to these narratives influenced individual attitudes towards civil rights, interracial assimilation, institutional trust, and political behaviour in adulthood. Using survey data covering a pivotal period for civil rights in the US (1964–1980), we disentangled the effects of progressive narratives from the general effect of radio broadcasts by employing a cohort study specification. This method involved comparing individuals exposed to the signal of Operation Intolerance with those who were not, within specific age cohorts. We exploited the fact that the show’s target cohorts comprised children and young adults, and that only those who listened to the show after 1946 were exposed to the progressive narratives.
Our estimates indicate a sizeable effect of the programme on support for civil rights (Figure 3A). This effect is measured using an index composed of nine distinct survey items, including positive feelings towards African Americans, support for affirmative action and minority representation, and rejection of segregation and segregationist politicians, among others. In target cohorts (ages 5–15), support for civil rights is 0.18 standard deviations higher among children who lived in areas fully covered by Operation Intolerance compared to those who did not. We observe no effect on older or younger cohorts, indicating that the impact on support for civil rights is specific to those cohorts targeted by and able to listen to the programme. Additionally, these cohorts exhibit a higher probability of interracial friendships (Figure 3B), highlighting increased racial assimilation.
Figure 3 Support for Civil Rights and interracial assimilation
Note: Age cohorts indicated on the horizontal axis are centred around the indicated value. For instance, age cohort 5 includes children aged 3 to 7 in 1946.
These increased levels of racial tolerance correlated with stronger support for the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Individuals exposed to these progressive narratives during childhood were more likely to support protests, reject the police force, and oppose the Vietnam War – core values of the Civil Rights Movement. Moreover, the broadcasts influenced political attitudes and behaviours, making target cohorts more progressive and less supportive of the Republican Party that had come to stand against the Civil Rights Movement.
Using historical records from 1930–2020, we compared counties covered by the signal in 1946 to those that were not, over time, revealing significant long-term changes. Figure 4 shows that counties exposed to the radio show experienced a decline in the presence of the Ku Klux Klan and an increase in local branches of Civil Rights organisations in later years. Further results suggest an increased share of interracial marriages, less support for segregationist politicians, and a decrease in Republican vote share in the long run.
Figure 4 Presence of racist versus progressive organisations
Implications for today
Minority communities around the world continue to confront deeply ingrained prejudices as they strive for equality. Our research underscores the potential of media as a powerful tool for positive social change, offering valuable insights for policymakers and media creators aiming to combat prejudice and promote inclusivity. Narratives targeting children that emphasise tolerance and condemn prejudice can lay the groundwork for a more pluralistic and harmonious societies in the long run. In an era where media continues to shape public opinion, understanding and leveraging its potential to promote positive narratives can pave the way for a more inclusive and tolerant society. The legacy of Superman's fight against racism in post-WWII America serves as a testament to the transformative power of progressive media narratives.
References
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